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Celebrating The Conquests of the Holy Roman Empire During The Great Turkish War

Scarce 2-sheet map of Hungary by Cantelli di Vignolla and Rossi, which appeared in Rossi's Mercurio Geographico.

This remarkable map, dedicated to Francesco II, Duke of Modena, embodies the complex interplay of power, conflict, and diplomacy in Central Europe during the 17th century. Centered on the strategic and economically vital course of the Danube River, the map captures a region pivotal in the ongoing struggles between the Christian states of Europe and the Muslim Ottoman Empire. 

Centered on the course of the Danube River, the map extends from the area around Vienna in the northwest to Belgrade and Western Transilvania in the Southeast and the Carpathian Mountains in the Northeast, the map provides an exceptional treatment of greater Hungary and its neighboring regions at the close of the 17th Century. 

The 17th century was marked by the Ottoman Empire's attempts to solidify and expand its control over Hungary and the Balkans, territories that were seen as vital both strategically and as a gateway for further incursions into Central Europe. The Ottoman conquest of Hungary began decisively with the fall of Buda in 1541, turning the city into the capital of an Ottoman vilayet. The significance of the Danube, both as a trade route and a military highway, cannot be overstated—it was the spine along which much of the conflict and subsequent territorial negotiations occurred.

Throughout this period, numerous battles underscored the contentious nature of Ottoman-European relations. The Long Turkish War (1593-1606), initiated by a coalition of European powers including the Holy Roman Empire, Poland, and Venice, aimed to push back against Ottoman encroachments.  This conflict set the stage for the 17th century’s struggles. The Long Turkish War began as an attempt by the Habsburg Monarchy, the Holy Roman Empire, and their allies to push back the Ottoman forces that had been encroaching on Central Europe. Significant battles included the Siege of Eger and the Battle of Keresztes, both in 1596, which demonstrated the formidable military capabilities of the Ottomans despite the eventual stalemate that led to the Treaty of Zsitvatorok in 1606. This treaty stabilized the frontier somewhat but left the Ottomans in control of significant territories in Hungary. 

Although the Treaty of Zsitvatorok brought temporary peace, conflicts reignited in what is known as the Fifteen Years' War (1606-1621). This conflict saw further efforts by the Habsburgs to reclaim territories lost to the Ottomans. Notable during this period was the Siege of Buda in 1602, where the Habsburg forces failed to recapture the crucial fort from the Ottomans. The war ended with the Peace of Nikolsburg in 1621, whereby the Habsburgs made gains in western Hungary, but the central regions remained under Ottoman control. 

Parallel to the Habsburg-Ottoman conflicts, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth became actively involved in the struggles against the Ottomans, especially through its engagement in the Cossack uprisings. The Cossacks, seeking autonomy from Polish rule, frequently clashed with the Commonwealth and the Ottomans, leading to fluctuating alliances and conflicts including the pivotal Battle of Khotyn in 1621. 

While not directly affecting the Danube region, the War of Crete (1645-1669) between the Venetian Republic and the Ottoman Empire influenced the strategic decisions of Ottoman military deployments across their empire, including their forces in Hungary. This prolonged siege demonstrated the extended reach of Ottoman power and its implications for Mediterranean and Central European geopolitics.

The Great Turkish War (1667-1699)

The Great Turkish War, also known as the War of the Holy League, marked a significant turning point in the centuries-long conflict between the Ottoman Empire and the Christian states of Europe. This war saw a coalition of European powers, including the Holy Roman Empire, Poland, Venice, and Russia, unite under the Holy League to combat the advancing Ottoman forces. Here, we delve into the major battles, key figures, and strategic locations that defined this pivotal conflict. 

The war was ignited by the Ottoman siege of Vienna on July 14, 1683. Led by Grand Vizier Merzifonlu Kara Mustafa Pasha, the Ottomans aimed to capture Vienna, the Habsburg capital, which was seen as a gateway to Western Europe. The city's defense was commanded by Count Ernst Rüdiger von Starhemberg, who held the city through two months of siege. The siege culminated in the Battle of Vienna on September 12, 1683, when a relief army led by King John III Sobieski of Poland launched a decisive cavalry charge—famed for being one of the largest in history—that broke the Ottoman siege and forced a retreat. 

The second Battle of Mohács, which occurred on August 12, 1687, was another critical confrontation. This battle should not be confused with the first Battle of Mohács of 1526, which had been a disastrous defeat for Hungary against the Ottomans. The 1687 battle was a decisive victory for the Holy League under the command of Charles of Lorraine, who routed the Ottoman forces led by Suleiman II. This victory was significant as it effectively ended Ottoman control in much of Hungary, paving the way for further Habsburg advances into Central Europe. 

A year prior to Mohács, the Holy League focused on Buda (modern-day Budapest), which had been under Ottoman control since 1541. The siege began on June 16, 1686, and was led by Charles of Lorraine. After a two-month siege, the city was recaptured by the League on September 2, 1686. The recapture of Buda was a symbolic and strategic victory, reaffirming Christian control over a key stronghold in the region. 

The Battle of Slankamen was fought on August 19, 1691, along the banks of the Danube in modern-day Serbia. Under the command of Louis William of Baden, the Holy League forces decisively defeated the Ottomans led by Mustafa II. This battle significantly weakened the Ottoman presence in the Balkans.

The Battle of Zenta, on September 11, 1697, is often considered one of the most decisive engagements of the war. Prince Eugene of Savoy commanded the Holy League forces and achieved a significant victory over the Ottomans under Sultan Mustafa II near Zenta (today Senta, Serbia). This battle effectively ended any significant military threats from the Ottomans to Central Europe and led directly to the peace negotiations that concluded the war. 

The war concluded with the Treaty of Karlowitz, signed on January 26, 1699. This treaty was groundbreaking as it forced the Ottoman Empire to cede significant territories, including Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia, and Slovenia, to the Habsburg Monarchy, Poland, Venice, and Russia, thereby reshaping the European map and significantly diminishing Ottoman influence in Central Europe.

The map dedication translates as follows:

Most Blessed Father

From my presses newly outlined on this sheet is the MAP OF HUNGARY. And because it captures a great part of it, having been wrested from the tyrannical yoke of the Ottoman Moon, through the strong support provided by Your Holiness, with fervent prayers to God and no less abundant treasures to the armies of the Holy League; so it hopes for the rest of the same in the most diligent assistances of Your Holy Sanctity to enjoy the same heavenly blessings, by returning under the most benign empire of the Austrian Eagle. Therefore, it will not be considered reckless daring but rather a reasonable duty that I humbly offer at the Most Holy feet of Your Beatitude, whom may God watch over for a long time for the universal benefit of the Holy Church. From Your Holiness.

Your most humble, reverent, and obedient subject

Gio: Giacomo de Rossi."

Francesco II d'Este, Duke of Modena, to whom the map is dedicated, was an important patron of the arts and sciences, including cartography, Francesco's support for the creation of such maps highlights the importance of geographical knowledge in the conduct of warfare and diplomacy.